We sometimes forget how diverse much of the world was before the 20th Century – How in many parts of Europe, Middle East, India and Africa Christians, Muslims, Copts, Jews, Farsi, Armenians and others lived together, often intermarried, and traded. So in Prague we had a unique Judaeo / Christian culture and a Germanic / Czech literature exemplified by Frank Kafka, in Morocco we had the Jewish areas, the “Mellah” under the protection of the King and a city like Essaourira which was half Jewish and Muslim and which to this day is painted in the Jewish colours of blue and white. And on the Island of Rhodes we had a Jewish Community which had been there since Roman times and made up a third of the population of the town and spoke “Ladino”, the language of the Sephardim, the Jews from Spain and Portugal who had been welcomed by the Ottomans as “People of the Book” after their expulsion from Iberia.
Then in the 20th Century much changed. There have been genocides in history, the 8 million South American indigenous people’s estimated to have perished in silver mines in Bolivia and in the 20th Century and before WWII writers such as Winston Churchill used the terms to describe the destruction by the dying Ottoman Empire of the Armenian population of Turkey, as well as the attempted destruction of the Greek and Assyrian populations, a process observed by a joint Germano-Austrian military mission. Smaller events occurred, often unnoticed by an indifferent world. By 1923 the Muslim population of Crete which had a similar ethnic makeup to Cyprus was extinguished along with its unique Greek speaking Cretan Turk culture by the last of compulsory population exchanges. In German South-West Africa under the Kaiser the native African people who fought against colonisation experienced the first German Death Camps. The father of one Hermann Göring was the colonial Governor at the time. But what makes the Nazi Holocaust of Jews and others in Germany and 21 occupied and allied countries unique is the scale, the premeditation and the sheer cold ruthlessness and cruelty in implementing the policy for a “Final Solution” agreed at the Wanesee Conference in 1942.
Bimah from a synagogue on Rhodes
The “Final Solution” failed, but not by too much – historians and others can speculate what could have happened if, with the vagaries of war, Germany had not been cast back at El Alamein and had conquered Palestine or if the war had continued for a year longer allowing the 6 Death Camps to continue their deadly work. As it was of the Jews in Europe at 1939 two thirds of them had been murdered by the racist Nazi state and its fellow travellers by 1945.
The Final Solution failed and at Yad Vashem both the Martyrs and the Heroes of the Shoah are commemorated. On a hill at Har Hazikaron, the Mount of Remembrance, just outside Jerusalem, Yad Vashem is a vast, sprawling complex of tree-studded walkways leading to museums, exhibits, archives, monuments, sculptures, and memorials. Yad means “hand” but also “memorial”, while shem means “name”. The name of the museum derives from a Biblical verse:
“And to them will I give in my house and within my walls a memorial and a name (Yad Vashem) that shall not be cut off“.
Plaque commemorating the holocaust victims from Rhodes
Jewish schoolgirls Rhodes 1930's
Since its inception, Yad Vashem has been entrusted with documenting the history of the Jewish people during the Holocaust period, preserving the memory and story of each of the six million victims, and imparting the legacy of the Holocaust for generations to come through its archives, library, school, museums and recognition of the Righteous Among the Nations.
The last monument (in fact 2,000 trees planted to commemorate those who helped Jews) also demonstrates the power of diversity. What used to be known as the Righteous Christians has been changed to the Righteous Gentiles because a Muslim, Selahattin Ülkümen, was the first non-Christian to receive the award. In June 1990, Ülkümen was installed on the Avenue of the Righteous Gentiles at the Yad Vashem Memorial in Israel. The Avenue also contains a further nod to diversity for installed here is the only member of the Nazi Party commemorated at Yad Vashem along with his wife Emilie, Oskar Schindler.
Identification portrait of Selahatin Ülkümen, Turkish Consul-General in Rhodes.
On Rhodes, Jewish descendants of refugees from the Spanish Inquisition had prospered during 390 years of Ottoman rule, and then under Italian occupation. But following Mussolini's removal from power in 1943, the Nazis took over the island, which, at that time, had a Jewish population of some 1,700. On July 19 1944, the Gestapo ordered all of the island's Jews to report for "temporary transportation to a small island nearby", but in fact to take them to Auschwitz-Birkenau.
Alexander Angel a young Jewish boy on Rhodes wearing the star of David in 1943. Jews on Rhodes were not required to wear the yellow star and he is wearing it as an innocent gesture of pride. He was murdered in Auschwitz in 1944
Ülkümen, the 30-year-old Turkish Consul General, approached the German commander, General von Kleeman, telling him that Turkey was neutral in the war and demanding that all Jewish Turks on Rhodes, including their spouses, whether Jewish or not, should be released at once. But, as Ülkümen later remembered: "The German commander said that, according to Nazi laws, all Jews are Jews and had to go to concentration camps. I objected. I said that, under Turkish law, there is no difference between whether a citizen was Jewish, Christian or Muslim. . . I said that I would advise my government if he didn't release the Jewish Turks and that it would cause an international incident. Then he agreed." Ülkümen was playing a dangerous game. He bluffed the Germans — there was no such law. Ülkümen's action saved the lives of 42 Jewish families. The rest of the Jews on the island were deported to Greece and from there to Auschwitz.
German Army occupying Kos Town in September 1943
The Jewish community of Rhodes goes back to the 1st century CE. In 1480, the Jews actively defended the walled city against the Turks. At its peak in the 1920s, the Jewish community was one-third of the total population. The community was mostly wiped out in the Holocaust. Kahal Shalom, established in 1557, is the oldest synagogue in Greece. It is still standing in the Jewish quarter of the Old Town of Rhodes. It has been renovated with the help of foreign donors but very few Jews live year-round in Rhodes today, and services are not held on a regular basis. This synagogue is maintained basically as a memorial to the 1800 Jews from Rhodes and Kos deported to the concentration camps from here, with plaques in French (the language of educated Ottoman period Jews in the Aegean). There's a museum in the back with photos of the Jewish community and its life on Rhodes and also in its widespread Diaspora in both the United States and in Africa. The museum was set up by a Los Angeles attorney of Jewish Rhodian descent.
Rhodes Town
The Platia ton Evreon Martyron /Square of the Jewish Martyrs was named to honour the large Jewish community of Rhodes almost completely wiped out by the Nazis during the summer of 1944. A 1929 Italian tourist guide so described the Jewish quarter of Rhodes: “Beyond the Admiralty we enter the Jewish quarter where the atmosphere is so different from that of the Muslim quarter: the latter is very silent with family life going on behind closed doors, the Jewish quarter is happily noisy with children screaming and the open doors allow to see women doing their chores in rooms and courtyards.”
That is now all gone; On July 19, 1944 the island’s 1700 Jewish inhabitants were rounded up by the Gestapo and sent to extermination camps, of whom only some 151 survived.
President of the Jewish Community laying a wreath to the victims of the Holocaust at La Juderia
The “Square of the Martyred Jews” (known in Greek as “Martyron Evreon”), is located in the heart of the former Jewish Quarter of Rhodes Town. The present park area of the square was originally an area of Jewish homes and small shops. However, the area was bombed during World War II, and in its place was established a small park and square. The present fountain ornamented with three seahorses replaced a previous fountain that was destroyed during World War II.
Selahattin Ülkümen 1914 - 2003
Ülkümen’s bold personal action is credited with saving 42 families. But his bluff didn't go unanswered. In September 1943, the German army occupied the island of Rhodes and moved to close the Turkish consulate, the last remaining Turkish consulate in Axis-controlled territory. When Turkey protested, German planes bombed the building, seriously injuring Ülkümen’s wife, Mihrinisa, who later died. His wife, nine months' pregnant, was seriously injured and died of her wounds while giving birth to the couple's son, Mehmet.
In the end, all those on Ülkümen’s list were released, while the rest of the Island's population of 1,700 Jews were deported to Auschwitz. Among those he saved was Albert Franko, who already had been placed on a transport to Auschwitz from Piraeus. When it was determined that Franko's wife was a Turkish citizen, Ülkümen had him taken off the train and returned to Rhodes. In August 1944, when Turkey broke diplomatic relations with Nazi Germany, Ülkümen was interned on the Greek mainland. He was released only on May 8, 1945.
Six Jewish women from Rhodes photographed in Bologna, Italy in June 1945 who survived
It will come as no surprise to those who study such things that those responsible for the War Crimes in the Dodecanese, for the deportation and extermination of the Jewish population, for the summary execution of Italian Officers and the hanging of Greek Partisans were never punished. General Ulrich Kleeman went on to lead hundreds of his troops to their deaths when his Panzergrupppen was destroyed by the Red Army at the disastrous Battle of Budapest in 1945. He died of natural causes in Germany in 1963 and his honour from Hitler of The Knight’s Cross of the Iron Cross was displayed on his coffin. Selahattin Ülkümen continued in the Turkish Diplomatic service until his retirement and never sought recognition for his bravery. His actions were recognised and lauded by the Rhodian Jewish Diaspora and are a testament to our common humanity and bond.
The president of the Central Jewish Council of Greece, Moisis Constantinis (R) presents on July 24, 2008 in Rhodes an award to Mehmet Ülkümen (L), son of Selahattin Ülkümen, The Turkish Consul General on the island who in 1944 saved 42 Jewish families from being deported to Nazi concentration camps.
Selahattin Ülkümen 1914 – 2003
Remember the Shoah and respect the memory of the victims.
It was up at dawn to get the Bluestar Ferry “Diagoras” to the wonderful island of Symi where Prometheus is reputed to have given the gift of fire to humans and was turned into a monkey by an enraged Zeus (according to myth!), hence the name; Symi = the Monkey. Although in Greek mythology nothing is clear cut. Symi is also reputed to be the birthplace of the Charites and to take its name from the nymph Syme (in antiquity the island was known as Aigli and Metapontis), and it is Pliny the Elder and some later writers who claimed it came from the word scimmia meaning a monkey. Behind the Mythos there is always some truth and the stories are probably allegories of the the spread of the Dorians along the coast of Asia Minor and the offshore islands. My story there was slightly less dramatic; Zeus opened the heavens and sent torrents down upon me! The journey down from Kos to Symi is full of promise from the very start. You stand on a harbour pier staring at the darkness and like sentinels two huge ferries appear out of the morning gloom and reverse carefully end on to the pier.
The miracle which is the unloading and loading of a Greek Ferry
World Class is not an expression I would normally use about a Greek company but Bluestar and its subsidiary, Superfast Ferries are truly impressive. In the gloom of the morning the two huge ships appear out of the morning gloom having come down from Athens overnight. Efficiently with the assistance of the Hellenic Coastguard, probably the only efficient Greek State agency, they disembark and embark these Titans of the seas efficiently and safely. The Ferries have step free access and, uniquely for Greece, well trained disability aware staff who immediately offered to assist my travelling companion who was using a crutch. We were found comfortable seats in the reception area and when I went up to the coffee bar later the waiter insisted on bringing the tray down to our seats. The boats are well equipped but made in Korea and not in the former shipbuilding nation of Greece which has made itself uncompetitive in this industry as in many other. They are ultra modern with 2 floors of cabins and two floors also of restaurants, lounges and bars. The two hours to Symi pass quickly as we watch the sun rise over the Turkish coast and as we head into the port of Symi, known as Gialos or Yialos, the reason we are on the smaller boat, the 145 metre “Diagoras” becomes obvious as in an amazing manoeuvre it is reversed into the pier with probably only 30 metre clearance.
Bluestar Ferry
Symi / Σύμη, also transliterated as Syme or Simi is a small but historic Greek island and municipality. Geographically, it is part of the Dodecanese island chain, located about 41 km north-northwest of Rhodes (and 425 km from Piraeus, the port of Athens), with 58.1 km² (22 sq mi) of mountainous terrain. The other main inhabited localities on the island are Chorio ("The Village"), Pedi, Nimborio, and Panormitis which is the home of the island's famous monastery which many people from all over Greece submit to a pilgrimage every year to visit. The island has 2,606 inhabitants, mostly engaged in fishing, trade, and tourism. In the tourist season which is roughly May until October, tourists and day-trippers bring the number of people on the island up to as much as 6,000.
The bridge joining the two halves of Gialos
Taverna in Gialos
Symi is one of the most beautiful islands in the Dodecanese, and has a rich history that stretches back to ancient times, when it was known as the Kingdom of Nireas. According to the writings of Homer, Nireas was one of the most handsome and brave of the Greeks, and he fought in the Trojan wars. What followed was the story of the rest of the Aegean islands: the Romans invaded in the 2nd and 1st century BC, the Byzantine years came after, interrupted in the 14th century when the Knights of Rhodes took over. They built a castle on top of the ancient acropolis to protect themselves against pirate raids, and were to stay of the island until the Turks invaded in the 16th century.
War Memorial
Because the Symian boats were extremely fast, the island got the important responsibility of post office to the Ottomans. In return, the island was left pretty much to itself, and did not suffer as many other places around Greeks. The fishermen of Symi were also allowed to fish sponges, which together with the wine production, was to be an important source of income, even though outshone by Kalymnos.
In 1912 the island was given to the Italians, along with the rest of the Dodecanese, and during World War II it was invaded by British and German troops, until its final unification with Greece in 1948. The shipbuilding and sponge industries were substantial on the island and, while at their peak near the end of the nineteenth century, the population reached 22,500. Symi's main industry is now tourism and the population has declined to 2,500. Its nearest land neighbours are the Datça and Reşadiye peninsulas of Muğla Province in Turkey.
Jimmy's Rend-a-Moto
Its interior is dotted with small valleys, and its coastline alternates between rocky cliffs and beaches, and isolated coves. Its main town, located on the northeast coast, is also named Symi and consists of the lower town around the harbour, typically referred to as Gialos, and the upper town is called Chorio or Ano Symi. In addition to its many historical sites, the island's isolated beaches, many reachable only with small boats, are popular with tourists. The Municipality of Sými includes the uninhabited offshore islets of Gialesíno, Diavátes, Kouloúndros, Marmarás, Nímos, Sesklío, and Chondrós. Its total land area is 65.754 km². Other villages on Symi are Pedi, Nimborio, Marathounda and Panormitis.
The harbour area of Symi town, known as Gialos must be rated as one of the most beautiful sights in the whole of Greece. The port has been an architecturally protected area since the early 1970s. Symi is really two places in one. The first, from late morning to mid afternoon, is a harbour thronging with hundreds of day trippers brought over in large excursion boats from the island of Rhodes.
Cameras start clicking as soon as the ferry pulls into the main Symi island harbour at Gialos or Yialos. It is a very impressive sight, a semicircle of Venetian mansions and houses tumbling down the steep hillsides to the shoreline. The ferry hoots madly and the sound echoes around the horseshoe of hills. Gialos is a favourite destination for day trippers from Rhodes and three or four big ferries arrive every day. As a result, it is often packed with visitors poking their way around the stalls that are set out on the long harbour front to meet the ferries.
A typical Xeno
Sponges and spices are the main goods on sale. Symi was once famous for its sponges but those on sale in Gialos today are mostly imported. There are also the usual souvenir shops and waterside tavernas. The Cathedral of Timios Prodromos, which was built in 1830 and refurbished in 1869, with a marvellous pebbled yard provides a welcome enclave just yards from the waterfront. In the right side of Gialos, a clock tower, named Roloi, built in 1881, counts for the Symiots the time which runs quietly in Symi. In front of Roloi, Michalaki the little fisherman (made by Kostas Valsamis) welcomes the ships, yachts and the caiques.
Roloi
When all the day trippers have gone, the atmosphere in the town tends to relax, the hustle and bustle gives way to a much more laid back approach to life. Both the locals and those holiday makers lucky enough to be staying, on the island, coming out for an early evening stroll around the waterfront, then settling down for a quiet, pre dinner drink, and to enjoy the entertainment of watching the yacht flotillas that start to arrive at about this time, attempting to dock for the night.What the visitors may not realise is that this town was left virtually destroyed by the retreating Germans who vindictively let off a huge explosion with the munitions they could not take away. Despite the years of rebuilding and restoration walk in from the waterfront and the scars of this vandalism are still visible.
Above Gialos is the upper town known as Chorio. The main road that runs up from the waterfront to the high town is not for the faint hearted. Named the Kali Strata, it consists of 500 wide steps. Both sides of the road are lined with fine, old neo-classical style houses, some with doorways leading to secluded flowered courtyards.
Chorio
There has been a great deal of building restoration done throughout the town to repair damage caused by the bombing and burning of the town during the Second World War however it still has a fragmented feel with the “centre” being none too obvious essentially a widened strip of road with a bus shelter, bench and kiosk. Many of the day trippers from Rhodes tend to take one look at all the steps and decide to stay in Gialos. But it is possible to catch a small bus whose route runs from along side the waterfront, up around the back to the top of the town. If you do take the bus or brave the steps, then you are rewarded with some of the best views to be found in all the Greek islands. You catch this bus on the far side of the harbour across the small bridge which connects the two sides of Gialos. Be warned, there is no obvious notice on the times of the bus which runs hourly on the hour up and on the half hour down. If Symi wants to improve its visitor perception it could do something dramatic like clean this bus. I have never been on a filthier bus anywhere. It looked like the interior had not been cleaned all season, it is beyond me how a bus driver could go to work every day and have so little pride as to lounge about smoking after each ten minute trip and not clean this mobile pig sty.
Once in Chorio you could visit the famous churches the island is noted for. You could only you will find them firmly closed and in the best helpful Greek tradition there will be no indication of when they might be open. The old town of Chorio is not car or indeed pedestrian friendly with essentially steep donkey tracks and steps. There are really only two places to head for. The Villa Pitse, perched high up in old town has stunning views of Gialos below. The hills surrounding the harbour form an amphitheatre so that on calm days, with the breeze blowing in the right direction, it is just possible to make out individual conversations being carried out way down by the waterside. Villa Pitse is only one of the many interesting buildings to be found, they range from large, lavishly decorated mansions, to much smaller houses, but each one seems to have a character of its own. However in the abscence of a guidebook or notices these are not accesible to the casual visitor.
Symi Museum, Chorio
Worth following the many signs for through narrow climbing pedestrian streets is the Symi Archaeology and Folklore museum which is housed in the house of Nikolaos K. Farmakidis. Here the friendly curator takes pride in showing you the paintings, photographs, costumes and material which shows the history and culture of the island. It is open from 08:30 to 15:00, except for Monday. Down below and part of the same complex is the fascinating four-storied house of Chatziagapitos-Chatziioannis, next to the museum with its impressive wall paintings. This mansion shows you the inside of an aristocratic Symian house with the dining and the sitting room (furniture, settings, paintings and photographs of that period), along with some traditional local costumes and artefacts. For me the most fascinating insight were the small servants quarters with above a ”quarantine” sleeping area for people who had infectious diseases and needed to be kept out of the main house.
The Museum includes the following collections:
» Archaeology collection of artefacts dating back to Classical, Hellenistic and Roman periods » Byzantine collection » Folklore collection
Before leaving go onto the terrace for the classic view of the harbour of Symi down below. Going back down to get the mobile pig sty bus back to Gialos you’ll find a couple of cafes aimed firmly at the locals and patronised by economically under utilised young men of the island who firmly laugh in the face of the alleged smoking ban. As with using seat belts and crash helmets this is seemingly a law which only applies to tourists!
The Greeks gave us logic!
In the south of the island and connected to Symi by a spectacular 8km road you will find the reason many Greeks visit Symi, the shrine at Panormitis. However to get there from Symi Town is difficult as buses go at 7.45 and 13.30 hrs, one before the ferry arrives and the second which won’t get you back in time for its departure! Better to go there on a direct boat trip from Rhodes in season. Panormitis is the island's famous monastery which is visited by people from all over the world, and many Greeks pay homage to St Michael of Panormitis each year. The monastery of the Archangel Michael (Taxiarchis Michael) is the most important sight on the island. It was originally built in the 6th century, but what you see today is the result of restoration and new buildings from the 18th century. Panormitis is a small place and there are two museums, a folklore and a religious, as well as a tavern. However the monastery is a substantial complex with facilities for feeding and accommodating pilgrims.
Monastery and Icon of Arch. Michael "Panormitis"
A nave was built on the remains of a Byzantine chapel, also dedicated to St Michael, in 1783. Since those days the monastery has expanded enormously, so much so that its guesthouse can accommodate up to 500 people. The harbour is dominated by a highly decorated, mock-Baroque bell tower that was built in 1905 and is a copy of the bell tower of Agia Foteini at Izmir in Turkey. There is a taverna and a bakery that bakes excellent bread. There is also a small beach. The excursion boats from Rhodes, usually make Panormitis their first port of call before moving on to the main town, so if you wish to try the bread from the bakery you will have to be early, for when the boats arrive they tend to sell out very quickly. As the boats only stay for a very short time, you may think it wise to plan your visit for late morning, early afternoon, so avoiding the crowds.
Since 1995, Symi has hosted the renowned Symi Festival during the months of July to September. This festival was founded by famous Greek political journalist, Ioannis (John) Diakogiannis, who established it in the birthplace of his father Eleftherios C. Diakogiannis. Since its inception it has attracted many of the leading Greek musicians (Katy Garbi, Eleftheria Arvanitaki, Glykeria, Alkistis Protopsalti, Mihalis Emirlis, Dimitra Galani, Despina Olympiou, etc.) to perform at free open-air concerts in the main square of Yialos, and also consists of many dance and theatre events. Well known Greek artist Eva Geraki has painted the Festival programme's cover, each year for the past 15 years.
In summary, Symi is a very friendly island which has not been spoilt by mass tourism, and still retains the traditional Greek island way of life and hospitality. There are no high rise hotels, no villa complexes, just some small friendly hotels, holiday houses and studios which are traditional Symian houses, some of which were originally wealthy sponge merchant’s mansions, renovated with loving care, with modern conveniences which you expect when on holiday. Staying in one of these old traditional houses and living amongst the local people means you will be able to live like an islander and totally unwind and forget the stresses of modern life. Come and see for yourself why people who come to Symi become enchanted with this special island and keep returning year after year.
Σύμη , Δωδεκάνησα - Symi island, Dodecanese – Greece
Visitors to the Dodecanese (The Dozen), that group of Greek Islands off the coast of Turkey are often surprised at the extent of the modernist and art deco buildings which remain as a result of the occupation of these islands by Italy from 1912 to 1943. Extensive work was undertaken on all these Islands which has left an important and somewhat undervalued architectural legacy.
The Italian occupation of the Dodecanese was accompanied by a strong presence in all levels of the islands’ structure which can be seen today: developing historical centres, organisation of the road system, expansion and preplanning of the town network. There were initiatives aimed at underlining Italian power and promoting specific functions for each island (i.e. tourism on Rhodes, military bases on Leros). The Italians built a large number of new buildings on all the Dodecanese islands, thus creating totally new forms of a symbolic colonial architecture which emphasised the role of the metropolitan state as a factor of modernisation. The new public buildings still stand out for their differentiation from the previous styles of local vernacular architecture in their size, scale and adaptation to the island landscape.
Dodecanese Islands
In September 1911 the Kingdom of Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire with the objective of conquering the three remaining provinces that empire had in Africa and which today are known as the Republic of Libya. Italy hoped to find an alternative destination for its excess population (in the period 1906-10 3,256,000 Italians had left their country).
Symbol of the Greek God Aesculapius, son of Apollo, protector of health and medicine, used by the Italians on Kos, the Island of Hippocrates, "Father of Medicine" who was a priest of Aesculapius
The conquest of Libya turned out to be more difficult than expected: the Turks had just small garrisons and the towns along the coast were easily occupied, but the local Arab leaders maintained control of the interior. In May 1912 in order to stop supplies of weapons to Libya and to force the Ottoman Empire to ask for peace, the Italians, who had total naval supremacy, landed on Rhodes and in a matter of days occupied the island: they then landed on Kos and ten other nearby islands: these islands which were called southern Sporades were renamed Dodecanese (twelve islands), their current name. In 1912 Italian troops took over Rhodes and the rest of the Dodecanese Islands, and established an Italian colony known as Isole Italiane dell'Egeo in 1923.
Arms of Isole Italiane dell'Egeo on the Municipal Buildings, Pothia, Kalymnos
The Italo-Turkish War ended in October 1912 mainly because Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria and Montenegro, having seen the weakness of the Ottoman Empire, attacked it (First Balkan War): the state of war in the area continued with a second Balkan War in 1913, World War I (1914-18) and eventually the war between the Republic of Turkey and Greece. A final settlement was not reached until July 1923 with the Treaty of Lausanne: Rhodes and the Dodecanese became an Italian possession, which included also a thirteenth island: Castelrosso (Kastelorizo), a tiny island very near the mainland. So the Dodecanese was no longer an accurate name to indicate the islands, but because number 13 according to most Italians brings bad luck, the 13 islands continued to be called the Dodecanese.
Rationalist-Fascist architecture was an Italian architectural style of the late 1920's promoted and practiced initially by the Gruppo 7 group, whose architects included Luigi Figini, Guido Frette, Sebastiano Larco, Gino Pollini, Carlo Enrico Rava, Giuseppe Terragni, Ubaldo Castagnola and Adalberto Libera. Two branches have been identified, a modernist branch with Giuseppe Terragni being the most prominent exponent, and a conservative branch of which Marcello Piacentini and the La Burbera group were most influential. Throughout the Fascist era in Italy architecture was used as a rhetorical device; it became the preferred vehicle for launching Fascist propaganda. It most forcefully portrayed, in the solidity of its materials and the vastness of its measures, the sublimity of imperial power. Buildings, piazzas, and ruins were privileged backdrops for public demonstrations, ritual re-enactments, and oratorical theatrics; spectacles aimed at cultivating a Fascist body politic.
Harbour buildings, Patmos
Rationalist-Fascist architecture was a much misused term, for it reflects the range of architectural approaches current in Italy in the 1920s and 30s. These certainly included the austere geometrical rationalism of Giuseppe Terragni, but there was also the mannered and inventive classicism of the Novocento style associated with such architects as Giovanni Muzio as well as the monumental stripped classicism of Marcello Piacentini. There were also rounded and streamlined structures inspired by American art deco as well as by Italian futurism, with its obsession with machine imagery. The greatest example of these is to be found in the Eritrean capital of Asmara in East Africa where there are also interesting earlier and more conservative buildings. The city was completely built by the Italians. Asmara represents perhaps the most concentrated and intact assemblage of Modernist architecture anywhere in the world. The urban design within the Historic Perimeter has remained untouched since its original implementation and subsequent evolution throughout the 1930s, and the architectural elements exemplify a superlative example of Modernist architecture in a complete urban setting. Today it is an UNESCO World Heritage site.
Asmara, Eritrea
In the Dodecanese Mussolini embarked on a program of Italianization, hoping to make Rhodes a modern transportation hub that would serve as a focal point for the spread of Italian culture in the Levant. The islands were overwhelmingly Greek-speaking, with Turkish-speaking minority and even smaller Ladino-speaking Jewish minority (with only a few immigrant Italian speakers). The Fascist program did have some positive effects in its attempts to modernize the islands, resulting in the eradication of malaria, the construction of hospitals, aqueducts, a power plant to provide Rhodes' capital with electric lighting and the establishment of the Dodecanese Cadastre.
Governor's residence, Rhodes
The main castle of the Knights of St. John was also rebuilt. There are two distinct periods in the history of the Italian Occupation of the Dodecanese reflected in the reflected in the architecture and in the perception of the occupation by the Greek inhabitants. Mario Lago was the governor of Rhodes until 1934; during that period relations with the largely prevailing Greek community were relatively good, taking into account that the governor was the representative of a very authoritarian and nationalist regime. Children had to attend schools where they were taught Italian, but they could learn Greek at religious institutions. At the cafés pricelists were affixed both in Italian and Greek.
Grande Albergo delle Rose, Rhodes, now the Casino of Rhodes
In the first period the Italians adopted an architectural style with historical references aiming to provide an ideal continuity with the architecture of the period of the Knights’ domination in the islands. The first buildings, such as the barracks (1924-1926), the residency (1926-1927) and the post office (1927-1928) of Rhodes by the architect Florestano de Fausto, intended to revive former styles like Renaissance and Mannerism. Aiming at creating a symbolic architecture, the architect did not use the identical forms, but used them by means of an abstraction and recomposition process. In the following buildings there was a conscious effort to use some recognizable features of ‘local’ tradition, which would eventually be better incorporated in the conquered areas.
Villa, Neo-Chorio, Rhodes
Government Buildings, Rhodes
Neoclassicism developed after the 19th century in the Greek communities of the Dodecanese was excluded because it was a direct reference to Athens, the national centre of Greece. However, the Aegean tradition was downgraded as well. The Italians rather turned to the anonymous Mediterranean and Balkan tradition. The new architecture created combined Venetian and Gothic features with decorative motifs from the Dodecanese folk art as well as loans from the tradition of neighbouring Arabian Mediterranean countries. A new eclectic architectural vocabulary resulted from the mixture of all these styles. In the case of Rhodes, which was promoted and organised by the Italians as a tourist destination, eclecticism became highly exotic, thus giving the island the international air of a Mediterranean resort. The most typical example of this architecture is the Rodon Hotel, designed by Florestano de Fausto (1925-1927).
The dreamily romantic Baths of Kalithea, Rhodes
At Kalithea Baths (1928-1930), designed by Pietro Lombardi, there is a more abstract style, nearer the principles of rationalism and Art Deco, developing in Italy at the time. The Kalithea complex is an interesting intervention in the natural setting of the springs thanks to the use of designed and natural open-air areas and the gradation of volumes in the different buildings. In the following decades the place became the point of reference for tourists and the ideal setting for many Greek films of the 1960s.
Theatre, Rhodes
Town planning interventions in Rhodes and Kos are indicative of the way the Italians viewed towns. According to the master plan for the town of Rhodes, prepared by Florestano de Fausto, the public services were along the coast and outside the historical centre of the town. In a central position was Foro Italico, the necessary free space for the large public gatherings promoted by fascism, with the House of Fascism (Casa del Fascio), the tower and the speaker’s balcony.
In the second period after the proclamation of “The Fascist Empire” in December 1936 Mario Lago was replaced by Cesare De Vecchi, a very early leader of the Fascist party. In 1936, with the Italian conquest of Ethiopia, Benito Mussolini proclaimed Victor Emmanuel III to be the Emperor of Ethiopia - a title considered illegitimate by parts of the international community, and lasted only five years. De Vecchi found the cosmopolitan atmosphere of Rhodes too far from the nationalist one prevailing in Italy. He abolished the tribunals which following the Ottoman tradition ruled over matters related to the various religious communities; Greek newspapers were closed; Italian was imposed as the only authorised language. The new governor was not pleased with the appearance of many modern buildings and he ordered the Albergo delle Rose stripped of the ornate decorations designed by Di Fausto. De Vecchi initiated a new period in Italian architecture, aiming at giving the conquered islands the air of a Roman province. This period is characterised by abstraction and the prevalence of rationalism and modern classicism. In this period De Vecchi launches a campaign to ‘purify’ his predecessor’s architecture by restoring the facades of several public buildings.
Agora or market of Rhodes
In Rhodes the capital of their new colony as they did in Libya, Eritrea and Somalia the Italians engaged on an energetic and expensive scheme of public works to impress the natives and the world with the “benefits” of Fascism. In Rhodes this largely meant rebuilding the Greek New Town (Neo Chorio), removing the Ottoman additions to the medieval walled town and the ultimate fascist vanity project “rebuilding” the Palace of the Grand Masters as an Italian Borgo with a considerable addition of HRT – History Replacement Therapy.
Palace of the Grand Masters
They would later demolish the houses that were built on and around the city walls during the Ottoman era. They also turned the Jewish and Ottoman cemeteries into a green zone surrounding the Medieval Town. The Italians preserved what was left from the Knights' period, and destroyed all Ottoman buildings. Furthermore, an Institute for the study of the History and Culture of the region was established, and major infrastructure work was done to modernise Rhodes.
Neo Chorio where the Greeks lived was turned into a modern town, while the buildings of historical Rhodes were restored and the Hospital housed an archaeological museum. Among the Italian architects who designed modern Rhodes, the Roman architect Florestano di Fausto played a major role. He designed buildings which were in line with the governor's objective of attracting a rich clientele. A very large hotel was built on the sandy beach at the very tip of the island. It was named Albergo delle Rose because the advertising campaign claimed that roses in Rhodes were in blossom ten months a year and the island was also called Isola delle Rose.
The Italian administration placed two columns at the entrance of Mandraki, which was the harbour of Ancient Rhodes, on the assumed site of the feet of the Colossus of Rhodes. This bronze statue was one of the Seven Wonders of the World: it portrayed Helios, the Greek God of the Sun; according to the traditional iconography the Colossus was spread-legged and ships passed beneath it (but today it is generally thought the statue stood on one side of the harbour). It held a torch and the head was surrounded by rays. If an inhabitant of Ancient Rhodes were to arrive at New York by sea, he would most likely think that Manhattan is a colony of Rhodes, because the Statue of Liberty has many points in common with the Colossus. Rhodes was very popular among the upper classes of cosmopolitan cities like Beirut in Lebanon and Alexandria in Egypt. Di Fausto designed a modern new market surrounded by cafés which replaced the old bazaar. Its design pleased the guests who came from Europe in search of a One Thousand and One Nights atmosphere.
Aquarium, Rhodes
On the site of the Palace of the Grand Masters De Vecchi built a gigantic mansion, meant to be used by the King or by Il Duce (the title given to Mussolini) during their visits to the island (they never went there). He placed his own coat of arms next to that of the Grand Masters and set his residence in the new palace. Today in the Neo-Chorio there is much evidence of the grandeur of the Italian scheme with an impressive assembly of somewhat oversized buildings. There is a Governor’s Residence and Municipal complex, an impressive market in neo-Moorish style, a Town hall, a National Theatre, a superb aquarium and a reconstruction of the Cathedral of the Knights of St. John, The Church of the Annunciation. The original inside the walled city was blown up when used by the Ottomans as a gunpowder store.
Kos - Albergo & Merkato
Harbourmaster's building, Kos Town
North of Rhodes on the 5th of May 1912, Italian troops, landed on the island of Kos with enough strength to expel the Ottomans. The Koans gathered on the streets and welcomed the Italians as liberators from Turkish oppression. They asked that they be allowed to unite with the rest of Greece which was already liberated. The Italians accepted this and declared that "The island of Kos was Greek and would remain Greek. It should be allowed to continue on its own strength and the like of the Turkish occupation which caused so much misfortune would never be allowed to happen again." It was all unfortunately a sham and Italy had no intention of keeping her word.
Stadium, Kos Town
In 1933 an earthquake greatly damaged the older part of Kos; it was soon evident that most of the fallen dwellings were built directly upon the foundations of ancient temples and markets. This led to a large campaign of excavations which was extended also to the outskirts of Kos. The archaeologists did not have far to dig before identifying two other areas with significant memories of the ancient town. The park which today replaces most of the medieval town was the commercial and political centre of Ancient Kos. Archaeologists have found evidence of a large market square surrounded by porticoes and temples; these were initially designed in the Hellenistic period (usually defined between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the annexation of Greece by Rome in 146 BC), but they were rebuilt or modified during the Roman rule over the island. The use of cipollino columns from Euboea is typical of the time of Emperor Hadrian. The site of the Roman agora was during the reign of the Knights of St. John the “Bourg” or the medieval walled town, a smaller version of the walled city of Rhodes. The Bourg was separated from the Castle of Nerazia by a sea moat which is today “Phoinikon" (Palm Trees) Avenue. Nothing much remains after the earthquake of 1933 but towers and walls have been preserved at the periphery and on the seaward side there is the one remaining Crusader House.
Law Courts, Kos
Despite regular and devastating earthquakes throughout its history Kos Town has remained on this site benefiting from the seaborne trade. It is the last major earthquake in 1933 (when the island was under Italian occupation) which gives us the shape and form of the contemporary city which spreads out from the harbour and which is home to half the island’s population. The Italians rebuilt with wide palm lined avenues and excavated the extensive Hellenistic and Roman archaelogical remains which were revealed by the earthquake. So modern Kos Town provides a fascinating mix of the Greek and Roman, the Crusader Knights who held out here until 1522, the Ottomans who left mosques, Hammans and fountains, the Italians who laid out the modern town and endowed it with fine public buildings, mock North African, fascist Internationalist and Art Deco and modern Greece of which Kos only became a part of in 1948. The maze like Ottoman Centre apart (known as Kos Old Town or Haluvazia in Turkish) this is a planned town with the pines, palms and shrubs planted by the Italians now fully matured.
Eleftherias (Freedom) square is the centre of Kos Town. It is the atmospheric open air "Drawing Room" of Kos where everybody goes for their evening stroll, to see and to be seen. It is overlooked on one side by the Nefterdar mosque which was built at the end of the 18th century and the ablution fountain, on the other by the Italian Colonial style Merkato, and by the Theatre and library and the Archaeological Museum on the other sides. Towered over at night by the illuminated crosses of the Orthodox Cathedral and adjoined by the ancient Roman Agora it provides a superb urban set piece symbolising the rich mix of influences which have made this unique island.
Theatre, Eleftherias Square, Kos originally the Casa del Fascio
The Archaeological Museum was built by the Italians in the 1930s to display mainly Hellenistic and Roman treasures found in and around Kos Town and dating from the third century BC. The museum allows visitors to glimpse into the former glory enjoyed by this quaint port town. From original mosaics of Hippocrates, who taught here, to statues of Asklepieion, Artemis and Hygeia found north of Decumanus Maximus, a trip to the Archaeological Museum provides a good foundation before setting off to explore the surrounding sites.
Market, Kos
Shopping areas, Kos Town
It was divided into three building zones according to class criteria: the north, central and south. The north section was broken up into small houses, for the town’s working classes (case popolari), the central section consisted mainly of two-storey houses with shops at street level intended for the town’s urban, middle class (palazzine). Finally, the east section contained the gardened mansions of the Italian settlers (villini). These zones can still be discerned today if you walk inland from the seaside road to Psaldi. On the seafront you can see the villas, inland the urban palazzine and on the far side of Artemisia you can see the low cost urban housing which are unified by arched entrances and a layout around courtyards which reinforces the neighbourhood and hides the high density nature of the housing. In their simplicity they remind us that the “White House” beloved of Modernist Architects was inspired by the simple vernacular architecture of the white houses of Greece.
Italian Villa, Artemisia
Low cost Italian housing on Artemisia, Kos Town
Modernist villa, Kos
Characteristic elements of Kos’ Italian architecture are the extensive areas of greenery around the town, which also included tropical plants, and the public buildings, designed by Italian architects, and constructed both in Kos town and the settlements of Antimachia and Kardamena. The buildings constructed before the earthquake (Town Hall, the “Hippocrates” General Hospital/Ospedale Ippocrateo, Government House, and others), differ from those constructed after the earthquake (Casa del Fascio, Municipal Market, Casa Balilla, and others), regarding their style, as the first are exquisite examples of eclecticism while the latter contain elements of rationalism and fascist architecture.
Seafront building, Kos
School
Down by the commercial harbour on the Psaldi side the Italians laid out a seaside promenade. Walking back towards the Castle of Nerazia from the seafront stadium you come first on your right to a seaside restaurant and then Albergo Gelsomino, a guest house for Italian dignitaries. Opposite is the former Catholic Church, now the Orthodox cathedral, with the playful “dices” on its modernist façade and a connected colonnaded administration building.
The former handsome residence of the Catholic Bishop which was let rot and the insensitive construction of "Southforkas" in its shell by a rich local businessman. You have to question the "planning control" which lets this happen?
To the left of the Cathedral the handsome villa which was the Bishop’s residence is being remodelled with considerable insensitivity by a rich local businessman who didn’t consider the original sufficiently vulgar for his purposes.
Orthodox Cathedral, formerly the main Catholic church
1928
Continuing by the sea there is a handsome two story range of restaurants with terraces in front of the Bourg, the former walled Crusader Town and to the left of the entrance gateway you can see the only remaining crusader house. At the end of this terrace you come to the landmark Italian building in Kos which visitors arriving by ferry immediately pick out the handsome Law Courts and Police Headquarters building reminiscent of the modernist Moorish style used in Eritrea and Libya. In the centre of the building is a cool courtyard overlooked by balconies which naturally cool the building using the airflow off the sea. This building was very much a symbol of Fascist authority with the inscription at the rear of the building overlooking the Plane Tree of Hippocrates proclaiming the dominance of the law in Latin and the ceremonial steps on the corner opposite the Fortress of Nerazia the pebble stone mosaic incorporates the arms of the House of Savoy, Kings of Italy.
Continuing around by the side of Nerazia the Italians filled the sea moat which separated the fortress from the Bourg and planted “Phoinikon" (Palm Trees) Avenue which handsomely connects the commercial harbour to the Mandraki, the ancient harbour of Kos. Here you can see first the Municipal Buildings and at the “Dolphin Fountain” the Harbour Master’s building.
Municipal Buildings, Kos Town
“Phoinikon" (Palm Trees) Avenue
Synagogue, Kos
Two modernist buildings in Kos are imbued with particular pathos. Immediately after the destruction of the old synagogue in the earthquake of 1933 a handsome new one in the modernist style was built very close to the port. It exists up to this day and is located on 4, Alexandrou Diakou Street. The synagogue served the religious needs of the 140 members of the Jewish Community. When Italy surrendered in 1943, the islands of the Dodecanese were occupied by the Germans. The members of the Jewish Community of Kos were arrested and their properties were seized. On July 22, 1944, the Jews from Kos and Rhodes were crowded on three cargo ships which went to the port of Piraeus. Once there, they were forced onto cattle trains and were deported to Auschwitz. During the Holocaust, all members of the Jewish Community of Kos perished. Only one person survived the Holocaust and returned to the island. Today this is their memorial. The Jewish synagogue has a plaque outside “In memory of the Jewish Community of Kos – 16th century to 1944”. The Synagogue is easily recognized due to the Star of David on the gates and it is now used as a Municipal Cultural Center. There is a monument inside the door listing the names of the 140 Jews from Kos whose lives were destroyed in this pointless act of evil by the racist Nazi State in the dying days of WW11.
The large Catholic Church opposite the Municipal Buildings is now the Orthodox Cathedral and the small catholic community instead uses the elegant circular church near the Casa Romana. This was originally the funerary church of the catholic cemetery and the Orthodox cemetery is behind it. Hear you can see the gravestones of the Italians executed on 4th October 1943 including several to “Fante Ignoto” – an unknown child. When the island of Kos in the fell to the German forces, a total of 1,388 British and 3,145 Italian troops were taken prisoner. Italy had signed an armistice on September 8 and the Italian troops were now fighting on the British side. On September 11, Hitler gave the order to execute all Italian officers who were captured.
Memorial in the Catholic cemetery to Colonel Felice Leggio and the 101 Italian officers executed by the Nazis on 4th October 1943
The former circular funerary church in the catholic Cemetery now used by the Catholic Community on Kos
Primary school by harbour in Kos
The officer in charge of the Italian troops was Colonel Felice Leggio. He, and 101 of his officers, were marched to a salt pan just east of the town of Kos and there, shot in groups of ten. They were buried in mass graves. When Kos was returned to Greece after the war, the bodies were dug up and transported back to Italy for burial in the Military Cemetery at Bari. In this peaceful spot in front of the circular funerary church there is a monument to the victims of this massacre. It is worth noting that nobody was ever punished for this war crime or for the deportation and killing in the death camp of Auschwitz- Birkenau of the ancient Jewish community.
Arriving in Pothia, Kalymnos
On the other islands such as Patmos, Nisyros, Symi and Kalymnos whilst improving the infrastructure and harbours new construction was largely limited to harbour front administration buildings housing police / municipal and harbourmasters offices. The most spectacular are on Kalymnos, famous as the Island of the Sponge Divers. Here in Pothia the port of Kalymnos various Municipal buildings were constructed by the Italians between 1930-35 in a Venetian style on either side of the Orthodox Cathedral and Bell tower and adorn the seafront along with a variety of shops and cafes. Pothia is built in a natural amphitheatre and the eye is drawn inwards as you approach the harbour to the satisfying composition of the buildings with their domed corner turrets, arcaded colonnades and balconies and the bell tower providing the visual exclamation mark.
Kalymnos
Up close there are stucco cartouches with a lyre representing the unique musical tradition of this island and ceramic arms of the House of Savoy. The building on the right of the Cathedral has on the first floor the Mayoralty but the ground floor was a covered market with a central courtyard shaded by palms. Kalymnos is a badly administered island and 10 years or more ago they decided to “modernise” the market. Well many years later it is still being modernised but in the process they have subdivided the building destroying its architectural integrity. As well as being architecturally inept the harbour front really needs a venue such as the Merkato on Kos where the many day-trippers and visitors to Kalymnos could savour and purchase the produce of the island so the current mess is a big loss to the island.
Lakki
North of Kalymnos is the island of Leros which on its western side has Lakki, the largest natural harbour in Greece, almost resembling a lake with its tiny opening of just 400m, hence its Italian name “Portolago” – the lake port. The Great battle of Leros during the Second World War inspired Alistair MacLean to write his novel “The Guns of Navarone”.
The battle of Leros lasted for almost 50 days and nights from the 23 of September 1943 to the 16th of November 1943, when the German forces launched “Operation Leopard” to capture the island from the Italian and the British forces after Italy's capitulation in 1943. Whilst the movie of the same name is set on Rhodes as you enter the port of Lakki the two capes especially the north one where the Italians had their defence guns and fortifications, has an absolute similarity to the film settings and the big guns which protected the port and dominated the sea approaches.
German gun at entrance to Lakki Harbour
Mussolini's vision of a new Roman Empire took shape here in 1923 when Italian architects and town planners turned their energies to building the new town. Under the watchful eye of Mussolini Portolago, was created in the 1930s, with its now infamous Italian Rationalist art-deco architecture and streets wide enough for military parading. The Greeks later renamed it Lakki, the Greek for “Lake.” The Italians tried to "Italianise" Leros as all the other Dodecanese and the inhabitants responded by declaring the autonomy of the islands under the title “The Aegean State”, with the aim of reunification with Greece. The fortification of Leros and the creation of a major naval base at Lakki ensured that the Italians had control over an area of vital interest to the Allies (the Aegean, the Dardanelles and the Near East). Mussolini saw Leros as a crucial base for Italian domination of the eastern Aegean, even building a mansion for himself in the town of Portolago (now Lakki).
Hotel
Harbour
A quite remarkable example of Art Deco architecture, Lakki was built around wide boulevards by the engineers Sardeli, and Caesar Lois, an Austrian. Leros was selected to be a military base due to its geographical position. The buildings are unadorned and less ‘pompous’ than those of Rhodes and Kos, though equally impressive in this place. Without complicated morphological features, the interesting features of this architectural style are the form, the use of colours and materials as well as the plasticity of volumes, which is often quite daring.
Portolago (Lakki) 1935
Teatro
A naval yard was built at Lakki bay, the largest natural Eastern Mediterranean port. A new town called Porto Lago, inhabited exclusively by Italian colonists, was built to serve the needs of the yard. The first expropriations and infrastructures started in 1928 and works lasted until 1936. The plan proposed that the central operations –administration, market, services and culture– are in the centre of the settlement, thus forming peripheral dwelling zones for army officers. When planning the new town, the architects R. Petracco and A. Bernabiti managed to create an exceptional ensemble of Mediterranean rationalism.
The Art Deco Church of San Francisco, Lakki (A. Bernabiti, 1935-1939)
The model town was all curves and featured a saucer-shaped market building with clock-tower (R. Petracco, 1934-1936), the church to San Francisco (A. Bernabiti, 1935-1939, a cylindrical Town Hall and Fascist Centre, dating to 1933-4; the elementary school (R. Petracco, 1934-1937) and the impressive Hotel Roma, later the Leros Palace hotel. The hotel and cinema complex were completed in 1937 for visiting Italian performers. Near the waterfront there is a monument to those who perished in 1943 when a Greek ship, Queen Olga was attacked by German planes and sank in Lakki's harbour.
Queen Olga being sunk in Lakki Harbour by German bombers. Beside her is the British cruiser "Intrepid" which was hit but not sunk
The International Style has produced a unique little town in Lakki, which for many years neglected and disliked by the Greeks seemed to be fading away with time. The Italians during their occupation created some amazing buildings on the island both at Lakki and Lepida, but it is Lakki that stands as a great example of the grandeur of the Italian rationalism, with its white surfaces, amazing promenade and open wide spaces it gives the impression of more like Miami and less like a Greek island in the Dodecanese. In recent years there has been more awareness of this unique legacy and its tourist potential as witnessed by the development of Lakki Marina to exploit the uniqueness of this superb harbour and the unique townscape.
Lakki Harbour
These days the buildings of the Italian occupation, together with the rest of the traces and monuments of other civilisations (Ottoman and Frankish), are parts of the architectural inheritance of the Dodecanese. As the Greek State grows in self confidence and as memories of the Italian Occupation mellow (after all, in the end the Italians and Greeks fought as allies against the Germans) there has been a more balanced appraisal of the value and significance of the architectural heritage which has been bestowed on the islands.
Symi; Italian built police station
With this reappraisal there has been a revaluing of what is now part of the architectural patrimony of modern Greece. Hopefully this reappraisal along with the desire to drive tourism (now the main economic driver in the Dodecanese) upmarket to correct the mistakes of going for the low value mass tourism trade in the past will translate to greater conservation of this unique and exciting built heritage which complements the many other influences over the millennia which give these islands a unique historical context and sense of time and place.
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